Explanation
Correct answer: D.
Choice D is the best answer because it most logically completes the text’s discussion of Shultz’s finding about male tanagers. The text explains that because carotenoids both contribute to deeply saturated feathers and offer health benefits, having deeply saturated feathers is usually “an honest signal” (a true indication) that a bird is generally fit. However, Shultz and others have found that certain male tanagers can appear to have deeply saturated feathers even if they haven’t consumed a diet rich in carotenoids, thanks to microstructures in their feathers that manipulate light. If those birds aren’t necessarily eating carotenoid-rich diets, they may actually be less fit than other birds that appear to have similarly saturated feathers; this suggests that a male tanager’s appearance may function as a dishonest signal, or a false indication, of the bird’s overall fitness.
Why the other choices are wrong
Choice A
Choice A is incorrect because Shultz’s finding suggests that some tanagers can signal fitness without consuming the carotenoids that contribute to fitness, thereby making those signals dishonest, not that tanagers can give honest signals of their fitness without consuming carotenoids.
Choice B
Choice B is incorrect because Shultz’s finding suggests that the microstructures in certain tanagers’ feathers can give a dishonest signal of fitness, not that the microstructures are less effective than actual pigmentation for signaling fitness. Whether the signal of fitness is honest or dishonest has no bearing on how effective the signal is: a signal is effective if potential mates behave as though it’s true, regardless of whether it’s actually true. Since there’s no information in the text about how potential mates respond to the dishonest signals of some tanagers, there’s no support for the idea that the dishonest signals are less effective than the honest signals.
Choice C
Choice C is incorrect because Shultz’s finding suggests that certain male tanagers may appear to be fitter than they actually are, not that scientists haven’t determined why tanagers prefer mates with colorful appearances.